Abu Hamid Al-Ghazali
(1058-1111 AD)

Abu Hamid Ibn Muhammad Ibn Muhammad al-Tusi al-Shafi’I al-Ghazali was born in 1058 AD in Khorasan, Iran. His father died while he was still very young but he had the opportunity of getting education in the prevalent curriculum at Nishapur and Baghdad. Ghazali’s major contribution lies in religion, philosophy and Sufism.

In philosophy, Ghazali upheld the approach of mathematics and exact sciences as essentially correct. However, he adopted the techniques of Aristotelian logic and the Neo-platonic procedures and employed these very tools to lay bare the flaws and lacunas of the then prevalent Neo-platonic philosophy and to diminish the negative influences of Aristotelianism and excessive rationalism. In contrast to some of the Muslims philosophers, e.g. Farabi, he portrayed the inability of reason to comprehend the absolute and the infinite. Reason could not transcend the finite and was limited to the observation of the relative. Also, several Muslim philosophers had held that the universe was finite in space but infinite in time. Ghazali argued that an infinite time was related to an infinite space. With his clarity of though and force of argument, he was able to create a balance between religion and reason, and identified their respective spheres as being the infinite and the finite, respectively. He was a prolific writher. His immortal books include Tahafut al Falasifa (The Incoherence of the Philosophers), Ihya al-Ulum al-Islamia (The Revival of Religious Siences), “The Beginning of Guidance” and his “Autobiography,” Deliverance from Error.” Some of his works were translated into European languages in the Middle Ages. He also wrote a summary of astronomy.

Abu Muhammad Abdullah Ibn Ahmad Ibn al-Bitar Dhiya al-Din al-Malaqi was one of the greatest scientists of Muslim Spain and was the greatest botanist and pharmacist of the Middle Ages. He was born in the Spanish city of Malaqa  (Malaga) towards the end of the twelfth century. He learned botany from Abu al-Abbas al-Nabati, a learned botanist, with whom he started collecting plants in and around Spain. In 1219 he left Spain on a plant-collecting expedition and travelled along the northern coast of Africa as far as Asia Minor. The exact modes of his travel (whether by land or sea) are not known, but the major stations he visited include Bouaghia, Constantine, tunis, Tripoli, Barqa and Adalia. After 1224, he entered the service of al-kamil, the Egyptian Governor, and was appointed chief herbalist. In 1227, al-kamil extended his domination to Damascus, and Ibn al-Bitar accompanied him there which provided him an opportunity to collect plants form stations located there. He died in Damascus in 1248.

Ibn Bitar’s major contribution, kitab al-Adwiya al-Mufrada, is one of the greatest botanical compilations dealing with up to the sixteenth century and is a systematic work that embodies earlier works, with due criticism, and adds a great part of original contribution. The encyclopaedia comprises some 1, 400 different items, largely medicinal plants and vegetables, of which about 200 plants were not known earlier. The book refers to the work of some 150 authors mostly Arab, and it also quotes about 20 early Greek scientists. It was translated into Latin and published in 1758.

His second monumental treatise kitab al-Mughni fi al-Adwiya al-Mufrada is an encyclopaedia of medicine. The drugs are listed in accordance with their therapeutical value. Thus, its 20 different chapters deal with the plants bearing significance to diseases of head, ear, eye, etc. on surgical issues, he frequently quoted the famous Muslim surgeon, Abdul Qasim Zahrawi. Besides Arabic, Bitar, had given the Greek and Latin names of the plants, thus facilitating transfer of knowledge.

Ibn Bitar’s contributions are characterized by observation, analysis and classification and have exerted a profound influence on was translated/ published late in the western languages as mentioned above, yet many scientists had earlier studied various parts of the book and made several references to it.

Abu Ali Hassan Ibn Al-haitham was one of the most eminent physicists, whose contributions to optics and the scientific methods are outstanding. Known in the west as Alhazen, Ibn al-haitham was born in 965 AD in Basra, and was educated in Basra and Baghdad. Thereafter, he went to Egypt, where he was asked to find ways of controlling the flood of the Nile. Being unsuccessful in this, he feigned madness until the death of Caliph Al-Hakim. He also traveled to Spain and, during this period, he had ample time for his scientific pursuits, which included optics, mathematics, physics, medicine and development of scientific methods on each of which he has left several outstanding books.

He made a thorough examination of the passage of light through various media and discovered the laws of refraction. He also carried out the first experiments on the dispersion of light into its constituent colours. His book Kitab Al-Manathir was translated into Latin in the Middle-Ages, as also his book dealing with the colours of sunset. He dealt at length with the theory of various physical phenomena like shadows, eclipses, the rainbow, and speculated on the physical nature of light. His is first to describe accurately the various parts of the eye and give a scientific explanation of the process of vision. He also attempted to explain binocular vision, and gave a correct explanation of the apparent increase in size of the sun and the noon when near the horizon. He is known for the earlier use of the camera obscura. He contradicted Ptolemy’s and Euclid’s theory of vision that objects are seen by rays of light emanating from the eyes. According to him the rays originate in the object of vision and not in the eye. Through these extensive researches on optics, he has been considered as the father of modern optics.

In his book Mizan Al-Hikmah, Ibn Al-Haitham discussed the density of the atmosphere and developed a relation between it and the height. He also studied atmospheric refraction. He discovered that the twilight only ceases or begins when the sun is 19˚ below the horizon and attempted to measure the height of the atmosphere on that basis. He also discussed the theories of attraction between masses, and it seems that he was aware of the magnitude of acceleration due to gravity.

His contribution to mathematics and physics was extensive. In mathematics, he developed analytical geometry by establishing linkage between algebra and geometry. He studied the mechanics of motion of a body and was the first to maintain that a body moves perpetually unless an external force stops it or changes its direction of motion. This would seem equivalent to the first law of motion.

Ibn Al-Haitham’s influence on physical sciences in general, and optics in particular, has been held in high esteem and, in fact, it ushered in a new era in optical research, both in theory and practice.

Ibn An-Nafis
(1213-1288 AD)

Al-al-Din Abu al-Hassan Ali Ibn Abi Al-Hazm Al-Qurashi Al-Damashqi Al-Misti was born in 607 AH at Damascus. He was education at the Medical College-cum – Hospital founded by Nur Al-Din Zinki. In medicine, his teacher was Muhathab Al-Din Abdal-Rahim. Apart from medicine, Ibn Al-Nafis learnt jurisprudence, literature and theology. He thus became a renowned expert on Shafi’I School of Jurisprudence as well as a reputed physician.

After acquiring his expertise in medicine and jurisprudence, he moved to Cairo where he was appointed as the principal at the famous Nasri Hospital. Here he imparted training to a large number of medical specialists, including Ibn Al-Quff Al-Masihi, the famous surgeon. He also served at the Mansuriya School at Cairo. When he died in 687AH, he donated his house, library and clinic to the Mansuriya Hospital.

His major contribution lies in medicine. His approach comprised and adding his own original contribution. His major original contribution of great significance was his discovery of the blood’s circulatory system, which was the first to correctly describe the constitution of the lungs and gave a description of the bronchi and the interaction between the human body’s vessels for air and blood. Also, elaborated the function of the coronary arteries as feeding the cardiac muscle.

The most voluminous of his books is Al-Shamil Fi Al-Tibb, which was designed to be an encyclopedia comprising 300 volumes, but it could not be completed due to his death. The manuscript is available at Damascus. His book on ophthalmology is largely an original contribution and is also extant. However, his book that became most famous was Mujaz Al-Qanun and a number of commentaries were written on this. He wrote several volumes on Ibn Sina’s Qanun that are still extant. Likewise, he wrote a commentary on Hunayn Ibn Ishaq’s books. Another famous book embodying his original contribution was on the effects of diet of health, entitled Kitab Al-Mukhtar Fi Al-Aghdhiys.

Ibn Al- Nafis’ works integrated the then existing medical knowledge and enriched it, thus exerting great influence on the development of medical science, both in the East and the West. However, only one of his books was translated into Latin at early stages and, therefore, a part of his work remained unknown to Europe for a ling time.

Abd al-Rahman Ibn Mohammad is generally known as Ibn Khaldun after a remote ancestor. His parents, originally Yemenite Arabs, had settled in Spain, but after the fall of Seville, had migrated to Tunisia. He was born in Tunisia in1332 Ad, where he received his early education and where, still in his teens, he entered the service of the Egyptian ruler Sultan Barquq. His thirst for advanced knowledge and a better academic setting soon made him leave this service and migrate to Fe. This was followed by a long period of unrest marked by contemporary political rivalries affecting his career. This turbulent period also included a three year refuge in a small village Qala’at Ibn Salama in Algeria. It was that period that provided him with the opportunity to write the Muqaddimah, the first volume of his world history that won him an immortal place among historians, sociologists and philosophers. The uncertainty of his career still continues, with Egypt becoming his final abode where he spent his last 24 years. There, he lived a life of fame and respect, marked by his appointment  as the Chief Malekite Judge and lecturing at the Al-Azhar University. Envy caused his removal from his high judicial office as many as five times.

Ibn Khaldun’s chief contribution lies in philosophy of history and sociology. He sought to write a world history preambled by a first volume aimed at an analysis of historical events. This volume, commonly known as the Muqaddimah or ‘Prolegomena’, was based on Ibn Khaldun’s unique approach and original contribution. It became a masterpiece on literature, on philosophy of history and sociology. The chief concern of this monumental work was to identify psychological, economic, environmental and social facts that contribute to the advancement of human civilization and the trends of history. iN that context, he analyzed the dynamics of group relationships and showed how group-feelings as-Asabiyya, give rise to the ascent of a new civilization and political power and how, later on, its diffusion into a more general civilizations, and analyzed factors contributing to it. His contribution to history is marked by the fact that, unlike most earlier writers, interpreting history largely in a political context, he emphasized environmental, sociological and economic factors governing the apparent events. This revolutionized the science of history and also  laid the foundation of Umraniyat (Sociology).

Apart form the Muqaddimah that became an important independent book even during the lifetime of the author, the other volumes of his world history Kitab al-I’bar deal with the history of Arabs, contemporary Muslim rulers, contemporary European rulers, ancient history of Arabs, Jews, Greeks, Romans, Persians, etc.,  Islamic History, Egyptian histgory and Norht-African history, especially that of Berbers and tribes living in the adjoining areas. The last volume deals largely with the events of his own life and is known as Al-Tasrif. This was also written in a scientific manner and initiated a new analytical tradition in the art of writing autobiographies. A book on mathematics written by him is not extant.

Ibn Khaldun’s influence on the subject of history, philosophy of history, sociology, political science and education has remained paramount ever since his life. His books have been translated into many languages, both in the East and the West, and have inspired subsequent development of these sciences. For instance, Prof. Gum Ploughs and Kolosio consider Muqaddimah as superior in scholarship to Machiavelli’s. The Prince written century later, as the former bases the diagnosis more on cultural, sociological, economic and psychological factors.

Ibn Rushd
(1128-1198 AD)

Abul Waleed Muhammad Ibn Ahmad Ibn Muhammad Ibn Rushd, known as averroes in the West, was born in 1128 AD in Cordoba, where his father and grandmother had both been judges. His grandfather was well versed in Fiqh (Maleki School) and was also the Imam of the Mosque of Cordoba. The young Ibn Rushd received his education in Cordoba and lived a quiet life, devoting most of his time to learned pursuits. He studied philosophy and law from Abu Ja’afar Haroon and from Ibn Baja. He also studied medicine.

Al-Hakam, the famous Umayyad Caliph of Spain, had constructed a magnificent library in Cordoba, which housed 500,000 books. He himself had studied many of these and made brief marginal comments on them. This rich collection laid the foundation for intellectual study in Spain and provided the background for men like Ibn Rushd, who lived 2 centuries later, Abu Yaqub, the Caliph of Morocco, called him to his capital and appointed him as his physician in place of Ibn Tufail. His son Yaqub al-Mansur retained him for some time but soon Ibn Rushd’s views on theology and philosophy drew the Caliph’s wrath. All his books, barring strictly scientific ones, were burnt and he was banished to Lucena. However, as a result of intervention of several leading scholars, he was forgiven after about four years and recalled to Morocco in 1198. He died towards the end of the same year.

Ibn Rushd made remarkable contribution in philosophy, logic, medicine, music and jurisprudence. In medicine his well known book Kitrab al-Kulyat fi alpTibb was written before 1162 AD. Its Latin translation was known as ‘Colliget’. In it, Ibn Rushd has thrown light on various aspects of medicine, including the diagonses, cure and prevention of diseases. The book concentrate on specific areas in comparison to Ibn Sina’s wider scope of al-Qanun, but contains several original observations by Ibn Rushd.

In philosophy, his most important work Tahafut. Al-Tahafut was written in response to al-Ghazali’s work. Ibn Rushd was criticized by many Muslims scholars for this book, which nevertheless, has a profound influence in European thought, at least until the beginning of modern philosophy and experimental science. His views on fate were that man is neither in full control of his destiny nor is it fully predetermined for him. He wrote three commentaries on the works of Aristotle, as these were known then through Arabic translations. The shortest Jami may be considered as a summary of the subject. The intermediate was Talkis and the longest was the Tafsir. These three commentaries would seem to correspond to different  stage in the education of pupils; the short one was meant for the beginners, then the intermediate for the students familiar with the subject, and finally the longest one for advanced studies. The longest commentary was, in fact, an original contribution as it was largely based on his analysis including interpretation of Qu’ranic concepts.

In the field of music, Ibn Rushd wrote a commentary on Aristotle’s book De Anima. This boos was translated into Latin by Mitchel the Scott. In astronomy, he wrote a treatise on the motion of the sphere, Kitab fi-Harakat al-Falak. He also summarized Almagest and divided it into two parts: description of the spheres, and movement of the spheres. This summary of the Almagest was translated from Arabic into Hebrew by Jacob Anatoli in 1231.

According to Ibn al-Abbar, Ibn Rushd’s writing spread over 20,000 pages, the most famous of which deal with philosophy, medicine and jurisprudence. On medicine alone he wrote 20 books Regarding jurisprudence, his book Bidayat al-Mujtahid wa-Nihayat-al-Muqtasid has been held by Ibn Ja’afar al-Thahabi as possibly the best book on the Maleki School of Fiqh. Ibn Rushd’s writings were translated into various languages, including Latin, English, German and Hebrew. Most of his commentaries on philosophy are preserved in the Hebrew translations, or in Latin translations from the Hebrew, and a few in the original Arabic, generally in Hebrew script. This reveals his wider acceptance in the West in comparison to the East. The commentary on zoology is entirely lost.  Ibn Rushd also wrote commentaries on Plato’s Republic, Galen’s treatise on fevers, al-Farabi’s logic, etc. Eighty-seven of his books are still extant.

Ibn Rushd has been bheld as one of the greatest thinkers and scientists of te twelfth century. According to Philip Hitti, Ibn Rushd influenced Western thought from the 12^th and other universities until the advent of modern experimental science.

Abu Ali al-Hussain Ibn Abdullah Ibn sina was born in 980 AD at Afshana near Bukhara (Central Asia). The young Ibn Sina received his early education inBukhara, and by the age of ten had become will versed in the study of the Qur’an and various sciences. He started studying philosophy by reading various Greek, Muslim and other books on this subject and learnt logic and some other subjects from Abu Abdallah Natili, a famous philosopher of the time. While still young, he attained such a degree of expertise in medicine that his renown spread far and wide. At the age of 17, he was fortunate in curing Nooh Ibn Mansoor, the King of Bukhara, of an illness in which all the well-known physicians had given up hope., on his recovery, the King wished to reward him, but the young physician only desired permission to use his uniquely stocked library.

On his father’s death, Ibn Sina left Bukhara and traveled to Jurjan where Khawarizm Shah welcomed him. There, he met his famous contemporary Abu Raihan al-Biruni. Later he moved to Ray and then to Hamadan, where he wrote his famous book Al-Qanun al-Tibb. There he treated Shams al-Dawlah, the King of Hamadan, for severe colic. From Hamadan, he moved to Isfahan, where he completed many of his monumental writings. Nevertheless, he contined traveling and the excessive mental exertion as well as political turmoil spoilt his health. Finally, he returned to Hamadan where he died in 1037 AD.

He was the most famous physician, philosopher, encyclopedist, mathematician and astronomer of his time. His major contribution to medical science was his famous book al-Quran, known as the “Canon” in the West. The Qanun fi al-Tibb is an immense encyclopedia of medical knowledge available from ancient and Muslim sources. Due to its systematic approach, formal perfection as well as its intrinsic value, the Qanun superseded Razi’s Hawi, Ali Ibn Abbas’s Maliki, and even the works of Galen, and remained supreme for six centuries. In addition to bringing together the then available knowledge, the book is rich with the author’s original contribution. His important original contribution includes such advances as recognition of the contagious nature of interaction between psychology and health. In addition to describing pharmacological methods, the book described 760 drugs and became the most authentic Materia Medica of the era. He was also the first to describe meningitis and made rich contributions to anatomy, gynecology and child health.

His philosophical encyclopedia Kitab al-Shifa was a monumental work, embodying a vast field of knowledge from philosophy to science.  He classified the entire field as follows: theoretical knowledge; physics, mathematics and metaphysics, and practical knowledge, ethics, economics and politics. His philosophy synthesizes Aristotelian tradition, Neo-platonic influences and Muslim theology.

Ibn sina also contributed to mathematics, physics, music and other fields. He explained the “casting out of nines” and its application to the verification of squares and cubes. He made several astronomical observations, and devised a contrivance similar to the vernier, to increaser the precision of instrumental readings. In physics, his contribution comprised the study of different forms of energy, heat, light and mechanics, and the study of such concepts as force, vacuum and infinity he made the important observation that if the perception of light is due to the emission of some sort of particle by the luminous source, then the speed of light must be finite. He propounded and interconnection between time and motion, and also made investigations on specific gravity and used an air thermometer.

In the field of music, his contribution was an improvement over Farabi’s work and was far ahead of knowledge prevailing elsewhere on the subject. Doubling with the fourth and fifth was a ‘great’ step towards the harmonic system and doubling with the third seems to have also been allowed. Ibn Sina observed that in the series of consonances represented by (n + 1)/n, the ear is unable to distinguish them when n= 45. In the filed of chemistry, he did not believe in the possibility of chemical transmutation because, in his opinion, the metals differed in a fundamental sense. These views were radically opposed to those prevailing at the time. His treatise on minerals was one of the “main” sources of geology of the Christian encyclopedia of the thirteen century. Besides Shifa (Healing), his well-known treatises in philosophy are al-Nagat and Isharat.

Abu Marwan Ibn Zuhr
(1091-1161 AD)

Abu Marwan Abd al-Malik Ibn Zuhr was born at Seville in 1091 or 1094 AD. After completing his education and specialising in medicine, he entered the service of Almoravides (Al-Murabatun), but after their defeat by the Al-Mohades (Al-Muwahadun), he served under “Abd al-Mu’min, the first Muwahid ruler. He died in Seville in 1161 or 1162 AD. As confirmed by George Sarton, he was not a Jew, but an orthodox Muslim.

Ibn Zuhr was one of the greatest physicians and clinicians of the Muslim golden era and ha rather been held by some historians of science as the greatest of them. Contrary to the general practice of the Muslim scholars of that era, he confined his work to only one field: medicine. This enabled him to produce works of everlasting fame.

As a physician, he made several discoveries and breakthroughs. He described correctly, for the first time scabies, the itch mite and may thus be regarded as the first parasitologist. Likewise, he prescribed tracheotomy and direct feeding through the gullet and rectum in the cases where normal feeding was not possible. He also gave clinical descriptions of mediastinal tumours, intestinal phathisis, inflammation of the middle ear, pericarditis, etc.

His contribution was chiefly contained in the monumental works written by him. Out of those, however, only three are extant. Kitab al-Taisir fi al-Mudawat wa al-Tadbir (Book of Simplification concerning Therapeutics and Diet), written at the request of Ibn Rushd (Averroes), is the most important work of Ibn Zuhr. It describes several of Ibn Zuhr’s original contributions. The book gives in detail pathological conditions, followed by therapy. His Kitab al-Iqtisad fi Islah al-Anfus wa al-Ajsad (book of the Middle Course concerning the Reformation of Souls and Bodies) gives a summary of diseases, therapeutics and hygiene written specially for th ebenefit of the layman. Its initial part is a valuable discourse on psychology. Kitab al-Aghthiya (Boo on Foodstuffs) describes different types of food and drugs and their effects on health.

Ibn Zuhr in his works lays stress on observation and experiment and his contribution greatly influenced the medical science for several centuries both in the East and in the West. His books were translated into Latin and Hebrew and remained popular in Europe as late as the advent of the eighteenth century.

Jabir Ibn Haiyan, the alchemist Geber of the Middile ages, is generally known as the father of chemistry. Abu Musa Jabir Ibn Haiyan, sometimes called al-Harrani and al-Sufi, was the son of a druggist (Attar). The precise date of his birth is the subject of some discussion, but it is established that he practiced medicine and alchemy in Kufa around 776 AD. He is reported to have studied under Imam Ja’afar Sadiq and the Ummayed prince Khalid Ibn Yazid. In his early days, he practiced medicine and was under the patronage of the Barmaki Vizier during the Abbasid Caliphate of Hroon al-Rashid. He shared some of the effects of the downfall of the Barmakis and was placed under house arrest in Kufa, where he died in 803 AD.

Jabir’s major contribution was in the field of chemistry. He introduced experimental investigation into alchemy, which rapidly changed its character into modern chemistry. Although the ruing of his well-known laboratory remained centuries after him, but his fame rests on over 100 monumental treatises, of which 22 relate to chemistry and alchemy. His contribution of fundamental importance to chemistry includes perfection of scientific techniques such as crystallization, distillation, calcination, sublimation and evaporation and development of several instruments for the same. The fact of the early development of chemistry as a distinct branch of science by the Arabs, instead of the earlier vague ideas, became well-established and the very name chemistry was derived from the Arabic word al-Kimya, which was studied and developed extensively by the Muslim scientists.

Perhaps Jabir’s major practical achievement was the discovery of mineral and others acids, which he prepared for the first time in his alembic (Anbique). Apart from several contributions of basic nature to alchemy, involving largely the preparation of new compounds and development of chemical methods, he also developed a number of applied chemical processes, thus becoming a pioneer in the field of applied science. His achievements in this field include preparation of leather, varnishing of water-proof cloth, use of manganese dioxide in glass-making, prevention of rusting, lettering in gold, identification of paints, greases, etc. During the course of these practical endeavors, he also developed aqua regia to dissolve gold. The alembic was his great invention, which made easy and systematic the process of distillation. Jubir liad great stress on experimentation and accuracy in his work.

Based on their properties, he has described three distinct types of substances. First and ammonium chloride; secondly, metals, for example, gold, silver, lead, copper, iron; and thirdly, the category of compounds which can be converted into powders. He thus paved the way for such later classification as metals, non-metals and volatile substance.

Although known as an alchemist, he did not seem to have seriously pursued the preparation of noble metals. He instead devoted his effort to the development of basic chemical methods and study of mechanism of chemical reactions, definite quantities of various substances are involved and thus can be said to have paved the way for the law of constant proportions.

A large number of books are included in his corpus. Apart from chemistry, he also contributed to other sciences such as medicine and astronomy. His also contributed to other sciences such as medicine and astronomy. His books on chemistry, including his Kitab-al-Kimay, and languages. These translations were popular in Europe for several centuries and have influenced the evolution of modern chemistry. Several technical terms devised by Jabir, such as alkali, are today found in various European languages and have become part  of scientific vocabulary. Only a few of his books have been edited and published, while several others are preserved in Arabic and have yet to be annotated and published.

Doubts have been expressed as to whether all the voluminous work included in the corpus is his own contribution or it contains later commentaries/addition by his followers. According to Sarton, the true worth of his work would only be known when all his books have been edited and published. His religious views and philosophical concepts embodied in the corpus have been criticized but, apart from the question of their authenticity, it is to be emphasized that the major contribution of Jabir lies in the field of chemistry and not in religion. His various breakthroughs e.g., preparation of acids for the first time, notable nitric, hydrochloric, citric and tartaric acids, and emphasis on systematic experimentation are outstanding. It is on the basis of such work that he can justly be regarded as the father of modern chemistry. In the words of Mas Mayerhoff, the development of chemistry in Europe can be traced directly to Jabir Ibn Haiyan.

Abu Abdullah Mohammad Ibn Musa al-khawarizmi was born at Khawarizmi (Khewa) (Uzbekistan), south of the Aral Sea. Very little is known about his early life, except for the fact that his parents had migrate to  a place suth of Baghdad. The exact dates of his birth and death are also not known for sure, but it is established that he flourished under Al-Mamun at Baghdad through 813-833 and probably died around 840 AD. Khawarizmi was a mathematician, astronomer and geographer. He was perhaps one of the greatest mathematicians who ever lived, as, in mathematics. In the words of Phillip Hitti, he influenced mathematical thought to a greater extent than any other mediaeval writer. His work on algebra was outstanding, as he not only initiated the subject in a systematic from but he also developed it to the extent of giving analytical solutions of linear and quadratic equations. That established him as the founder of Algebra. The very name Algebra has been derived from his famous book Hisab Al-Jabr wa-al-Muqabilah. His arithmetic synthesised Greek and Hindu knowledge and also contained his own contribution of fundamental importance to mathematics and science. Thus, he explained the use of zero, a numeral of fundamental importance developed by the Arabs. Similarly, he  developed the decimal system so that the overall system of numerals, ‘algorithm’ or ‘algorizm’ is named after him. In addition to introducing the Indian system of lnumerals (now generally known as Arabic numerals), he developed at length several arithmetical procedures, including operations on fractions. It was through his work that the system of numerals was first European languages. He developed in detail trigonometric tables containing the sine functions, which were probably extrapolated to tangent functions by Maslama. He also perfected the geometric representation of conic section   and developed the calculus of two errors, which practically led him to the concept of differentiation. He is also reported to have collaborated in the degree measurements ordered by Al-Mamun that aimed at measuring of volume and circumference of the earth.

The development of astronomical tables by him was a significant contribution lf Khawarizmi to geography is also outstaying, corrected them in detail as well as correcting his map of the world. His other contributions include original work related to clocks, sun-dials and astrolabes.

Several of his books were translated into Latin in the early –twelfth century, in fact, his book on arithmetic, Kitab al-Jam’a a wal-tafreeq bill Hisab al-Hindi, was  lost in Arabic but a survived in the Latin translation. Which introduced this new science t the West “completely unknown till then.” He astronomical tables were also translated into European languages and, later, into Chinese. His geography book captioned Kitab Surat-al-Ard, together with its maps, was also translated. In additional he wrote a book on the Jwesish calendar Istikhraj Tarikh al-Yahud, and two books on the astrolabe. He also wrote Kitab al-Tarkish and his book on sun-dials was captioned Kitab al-Rukhmat, but both of them have been lost.

The influence of Khawarizmi on the growth of science, in general, and mathematics, astronomy and geography in particular, is well established in history. Several of his books were readily translated into a number of other languages, and, in fact constituted the universities text-books till the sixteenth century. His approach was systematic and logical, and not only did he bring together the then prevailing knowledge on various branches of science, particularly mathematics, but alto enriched it through his original contribution. Not surprising then that he has been held in high repute through the centuries science hid death.

Ghayath al-din Omar Ibn Ibrahim al-Khayyam was bon at Nishaput, the provincial capital of Khurasan around 1044 AD (c. 1038 to 1048). A Persian mathematician, astronomer, philosopher, physician and poet, he is commonly known as Omar Khayyam – Khayyam means the tent-maker. Although generally considered as Persian, it has also been suggested that he could have belonged to the Khayyami tribe of Aram origin who might have settled in Persia. Little is known about his early life, except for the fact that he was educated at Nishapur and lived there and at Samarqand for most of his life. He was a contemporary of Nizam al-Mulk Tusi. Contrary to the available opportunities, he did not like to be employed at the King’s court and led a calm life devoted to search for knowledge. He travelled to the great centres of learning, Samarqand, Bakhara, Balkh and Isfahan in order to study further and exchange views with the scholars there. While at Samarqand, he was patronised by a dignitary, Abu Tahir. He died at Nishapur in 1123-24.

Algebra would seem to rank first among the fields to which he contributed. He made an attempt to classify most algebraic equation, including the third degree equations and, in fact, offered solution for a number of them. This includes geometric solutions of cubic equation and partial geometric solutions of most other equations. His book Maqalat fi al-Jabr wa al-Muqabila is master-piece on algebra and had great importance in the development of algebra. His remarkable classification of equation is based on the complexity of the equations, as the higher the degree of an equation, the more terms, or combinations of terms, it will contain. Thus, Khayyam recognized 13 different forms of cubic equation. His method of solving equations if largely geometrical and depends upon an ingenious selection of proper conics. He also developed the binomial expansion when the exponent is a positive integer. In fact, he has been considered to be the first to find the binomial theorem and determine-- binomial coefficients. In geometry, he studied generalities of Euclid and contributed to the theory of parallel lines.

The Saljuq Sultan, Malik0shah Jalal al-din, called him to the mew observatory at Ray around 1074 and assigned  him the task of determining a correct solar calendar. This had become necessary in view of the revenue collections and other administrative matters that were to be performed at different times of the year. Khayyam introduced a calendar that was remarkably accurate, and was named as Al-Tarikh-al-Jalali, it had an error of one day in 3770 years and was thus even superior to the Georgian calendar (error of 1 day in 3330 years).

His contribution to other fields of science include a study of generalities of Euclid, development of methods for the accurate determination of specific gravity, etc. in metaphysics, he wrote three books Risala, Dar Wujun and the recently discovered Nauruznamah,. He was also a renowned astronomer and physician.

Apart from being a scientist, Khayyam was also a well known poet. In this capacity, he has become more popularity known in the Western world since 1839, when Edward Fitzgerald published an English translation of his Rubaiyart (Quatrains). This has since become one of the most popular classics of the world literature. It should be appreciated that tit is practically impossible to exactly translate any literary world into another language, let alone poetry , especially when it involves mystical and philosophical messages of deep complexity. Despite this, the popularity of the translation of Rubaiyat would indicate the worth of his rich though.

Khayyam wrote a large number of books and monographs in the above areas. Out of these, ten books and thirty monographs have been identified. Of these, four concern mathematics’, three physics, three metaphysics, one algebra and one geometry.

His influence on the development of mathematics in general and analytical geometry, in particular, has been immense. His work remained ahead of other for centuries until the times of Descartes, who applied the same geometrical approach in solving cubic. His fame as a mathematician has been partially eclipsed by his popularity as a poet. Nonetheless, his contribution as a philosopher and scientist has been of significant value in furthering the frontiers of human knowledge.

Abu Yousaf Yaqub Ibn Ishaq al-kindi was born at Kufa around 800 AD. His father was an official of Haroon al-Kindi was a contemporary af al-mamun, al-Mu’tasim and al-Mutawakkil and flourished largely at Baghdad. He was formally employed by Mutawakkil as a calligrapher. On account of his philosophical views, Mutawakkil was annoyed with him and confiscated all his books. These were, however, returned later on. He died in 873 AD during the reign of al-Mu’tamid.

Al-Kindi was a philosopher, mathematician, physicist, astronomer, physician, georapher and even an expert in music. It is surprising that he made original contributions to all of these fields. Because of his work he became known as the philosopher of the Arabs.

In mathematics, he wrote four books on the number system and laid the foundation of a large part of modern arithmetic. There is no doubt that the Arabic system of numerals was largely developed by al-Khawarizmi, but al-kindi also made rich contributions to it. He also contributed studies.

In chemistry, he opposed the idea that base metals can be converted to precious metals. In contrast to prevailing alchemical views, he was emphatic that chemical reactions cannot bring about the transformation of elements. In physics, he made rich contribution to geometrical optics and wrote a book on it. This book later on provided guidance and inspiration to such eminent scientists as Roger Bacon.

In medicine, his chief contribution comprises the fact that he was the first to systematically determine the doses to be administered of all the drugs known at his time. This resolved the conflicting views prevailing among physicians on the dosage that caused difficulties in writing recipes.

Very little was known on the scientific aspects of music in his time. He pointed out that the various notes that combine to produce harmony have a specific pitch each. Thus, notes with too low or too high a pitch are non-pleasant. The degree of harmony depends on the frequency of notes, etc. he also pointed out the fact that when a sound is produced, it generates waves in the air which strike the ear-drum. His work contains a notation on the determination of pitch.

He was a prolific writer: the total number of books written by him was 241, the prominent among which were divided as follows:

Astronomy 16, Arithmetic 11, Geometry 32, Medicine 22, Physics 12, Philosophy 22, Logic 9, Psychology 5, and Music 7.

In addition, various monographs written by him concern tides, astronomical instruments, rocks precious stones, etc. he was also an early translator of Greek works into Arabic, but this fact has largely been over-showed by his numerous original writings. It is unfortunate that most of his books are no longer extant, but those existing speak very highly of his standard of scholarship and contribution. He was known as Alkindus in Latin and a large number of his books were translated into Latin by Gherard of Cremona. His books that were translated into Latin during the Middile Ages comprise Risalat dar Tanjim, Ikhtiyarat al-Ayyam, Ilahyate-e-Aristu, al-Mosiqa, Mad-wa-jazr, and Adwiya Murakkaba.

Al-Kindi’s influence on development of science and philosophy was significant in the revival of sciences in that period. In the Middle Ages, Cardano considered him as one of the twelve greatest minds. His works, in fact, lead to further development of various subjects for centuries, notably physics, mathematics, medicine and music.

Abu al-Hassan Ali Ibn Muhammad Ibn Habib al-Mawardi was born at Basra in 972 Ad. He was educated at first in Basra where, after completion of his basic education, he learned Fiqh (Islamic Jurisprudence) from the jurist Abu al-Wahid al-Simari. He then went to Baghdad for advanced studies under Sheikh Abdul-Hamid and Abdallah Al-Baqi. His proficiency in jurisprudence, ethics, political science and literature proved useful in securing a respectable career for hi. After his initial appointment as Qadi (Judge), he was gradually promoted to higher offices, until he became the Chief Justice of Baghdad. The Abbasid Caliph al-Qasim bi-Amr Illah appointed him as his roving ambassador and sent him to a number of countries as the head of special missions. In this capacity , he played a key role in establishing harmonious relations between the declining g Abbasid Capliphate and the rising power of Buwaihids and Sljukes. He was favored with rich gifts and tributes by most Sultans of the time. He was still in Baghdad when it was taken over by Buwaihids. He died in 1058 AD.

Al-Mawardi was a great jurist, mohaddith, sociologist and an expert in political science, he wasjurist in the school of Fiqh and his bookAl-Hawi on the principles of jurisprudence is held in high repute. His contribution in political science and sociology comprises a number of monumental books, the most famous of which are Kitab al-Ankam al-Sultania, Qanun al-Wazarah, and Kitab Nasihaat al-Mulk. The books discuss the principles of political science, with special reference to the functions and duties of the caliphs, the chief minister, other ministers, relationships between various elements of public and government and measures to strengthen the government and ensure victory in war. Two of these books, al-Ahkam al-Sultania and Qanumn al-Wazarah have been published and also translated into various languages. He is considered as being the author/supporter of the ‘Doctrine of Necessity’ in political science. He was thus in favour of a strong caliphate and discourages unlimited powers delegated to the governors, which tended to create chaos. On the other hand, he has laid down clear principles for election of the caliph and qualities of the voters, chief among which are attainment of a degree of intellectual level and purity of character.

In ethics, he wrote Kitab A’Adab al-Dunya wa al-Din which became a widely popular book on the subject and is still read in some Islamic countries. Al-Mawardi had been considered as one of the most famous thinkers in political science in the Middle Ages. His original work influenced the development of this science, together with the science of sociology, which was further developed on by Ibn Khaldun.

Abu Bakr Mohammad Ibn Zakariya al-Razi (864-930) wasborn at Ray, Iran. Initially, he was interested inmusic but later on he learnt medicine, mathematics, astronomy, chemistry and philosophy from a student of Hunayn Ibn Ishaq, who was well versed in the ancient Greek, Persian and Indian systems of medicine and other subject. He also studied under Ali Ibn Rabban. The Practical exzperiene gained at the well-known Muqtadari Hospital helped him in his chosen profession of medicine. At an early age, he gained eminence as an expert in medicine and alchemy, so that patients and students flocked to him from distant parts of Asia.

He was first placed in charge of the first Royal Hospital at Ray, from where he soon moved to a similar position in Baghdad. There, he remained the head of its famous Muqtadari Hospital for a long time. He moved from time to time to various cities, especially between Ray and Baghdad, but finally returned to Ray, where he died around 930 AD. His name is commemorated at the Razi Research Institute near Tehran.

Razi was a Hakim, an alchemist and a philosopher. In medicine, his contribution was so significant that it  can only be compared to that of Ibn Sina. Some of his works in medicine e.g. Kitab al-Mansoori, Al-Hawi, Kitab al-Mulooki and Kitab al-Judari wa al-Hasabah earned everlasting fame. Kitab al-Mansoori, which was translated into Latin in the fifteenth century AD, comprised ten volumes and dealt exhaustively with Greco Arab medicine. Some of its volumes were published separately in Europe. His al-Judari wal Hasabah was the fist treatise of smallpox and chicken pox, and is largely based on Razi's original contribution. it was translated into various European languages. Through this treatise, he became the first to draw clear comparisons between smallpox and chicken pox. al-Hawi was the largest medical encyclopedia composed by the. It contained on each  medical subject all-important information that was available from Greek and Arab sources, and this was concluded by him by giving his own remarks based on his experience and views.  A special feature of his medical system was that he greatly favoured cure though correct and regulated food. This was combined with his emphasis on the influence of psychological factors on health. He also tried proposed remedies first on animals in order to evaluate in their effects and side effects. He was also an expert surgeon and was the first to use opium for anesthesia.

In addition to being a physician, he compounded medicines and, in his later years, gave himself over to experimental and theoretical science. It seems possible that he developed his chemistry independently of Jabir Ibn Haiyan. He has portrayed in great detail several chemical reactions and also given full descriptions of and designs for about twenty instruments used in chemical investigations.

His description of chemical knowledge is in plain and plausible language. One of his books called Kitab-al-Asrar deals with the preparation of chemical materials and their utilization. Another one was translated into Latin under the name Liber Experimentorium.  He went beyond his predecessors indivisind substances into plants, animals and minerals, thus in a way opening the way for inorganic and organic chemistry. By and large, this classification of the three kingdoms still holds. As a chemist, he was the first to produce sulphuric acid together with some other acids, and he also prepared alcohol by fermenting sweet products.

His contribution as a philosopher is also well known. The basic elements in his philosophical system are the creator, spirit, matter, space and time. He discusses their characteristics in detail and his concepts of space and time as continuum are outstanding. His philosophical views were, however, criticized by a number of other Muslim scholars of the era.

He was a prolific author, who has left monumental treatises on numerous subjects. He has more than 200 outstanding scientific contributions to his credit, out of which abut half deal with medicine and 21 concern alchemy. He also wrote on physics, mathematics, astronomy and optics, but these writings could not be preserved .A number of his books including Jami-fi-al-Tib, Mansoori, al-Hawi, Kitab al-Judari wa al-Hasabah, al-Mulooki, Maqalah fi al-Hasat fi Kulla wa al-Mathana, Kitab al-Qalb, Kitab al-Mafasil, Kitab al-Ilaj al-Ghoraba, Bar al-sa’ah, and al-Taqseem wa al-Takhsir, have been published in various European languages. About 40 of his manuscripts are still extant in the museums and libraries of Iran, Paris, Britain Rampur, and Bankipur. His contribution has greatly influenced the development of science, in general, and medicine in particular.

Jalal Al-Din Mohammad Ibn Mohammad Ibn Mohammad Ibn Hussain al-Rumi was born in 604 Ah (207/8 AD) at Balkh (now Afghanistan). His fathr Baha al-Din was a renowned religious scholar. Under his patronage, Rumi received his early education from Syed Burhan al-Din. When his age was about 18 years, the family (after several migrations) finally settled at Konya (Turkey). At the age of 25, Rumi was continued with his education till he was 40 years old, although on his father’s death Rumi succeeded him as a professor in the famous Madrasa at Konya at the age of about 24. he received his mystical training fist at the hands of Syed Burhan al-Din and later he was trained by Shams al-DinTabrizi. He became famous for his mystical insight, his religious knowledge and as a Persian poet. He used to teach a large number of pupils at his Madrasa and also founded the famous Mawalwi Order in Tasawwuf. He died in 672 AH (1273 AD) at Konya (Turkey), which subsequently became a sacred place for dancing dervishes of the Mawlawi order.

His major contribution lies in Islamic philosophy and Tasawwuf. This was embodied largely in poetry, especially through his famous Mathnawi. This book, the largest mystical exposition in verse, discusses and offers solutions to many complicated problems in metaphysics,  religion, ethics, mysticism, etc. fundamentally, the Mathnawi highlights the various hidden aspects of Sufism and their relationship with the worldly life. For this, Rumi draws on a variety of subjects and derives numerous examples from everyday life. His main subject is the relationship between man and God on the one hand, and between man and man, on the other. He apparently believed in Pantheism and portrayed the various stagesof man’s evolution in his journey towards the ultimate.

Apart from the Mahnawi, he also wrote his Diwan (collection of poems) and Fih-Ma-Fih (a collection of mystical sayings). However, it is the Mathnawi itself that has largely transmitted Rumi’s message. Soon after its completion, other scholars started writing detailed commentaries on it, in order to interpret its rich propositions on Tasawwuf, metaphysics and ethics. Several commentaries in different languages have been written since then.

His impact on philosophy, literature, mysticism and culture, has been so deep throughout Central Asia and most Islamic countries that almost all religious scholars, mystics, philosophers, sociologists and others have referred to his verses during all these centuries since his death. Most difficult problems in these areas seemed to have inspired most of the intellectuals in Central Asia and adjoining areas since his time. Scholars like Iqbal have further developed Rumi’s concepts. The Mathnawi became known as the interpretation of the Qur’an in the Pahlawi language. He is one of the few intellectuals and mystics whose views have so profoundly affected the world-view in its higher perspective in large parts of the Islamic World.

This accomplished Hakim was the tutor of the unparalleled physician Zakariya al-Razi. Luck favoured the disciple more than the teacher in terms of celebrity, it seems. As compared to Razi, people know very little about his teacher Al-Tabari.

Ali Bin Rabban’s forename was Abu al-Hassan, The full name being Abu al-Hassan Ali Ibn SahlIbn Rabban al –Tabari, Born in 838 AD, his father Sahl hailed from a respectable jewish family. The nobility and sympathy inherent in his very nature soon endeared him to his countrymen so much so that they used to call him Rabban which implies “my leader.”

Professionally Sahl was an extremely successful physician. He had command over the art of calligraphy too. Besides, He had a deep insight into the disciplinesa of Astronomy, Philosophy, Mathematics and Literature. Some complicated articles of Batlemus’s Book al-Mijasti come to be resolved by way of Sahl’s scholorly expertise. Translators preceding him had failed to solve the mystery.

Ali received his education in the disciplines of Medical Science and calligraphy from his able father Sahl and attained perfection in these fields. He had also mastered syriac and Greek languages to a high degree of proficiency. Although Ali hailed from an Israelite family, he had embraced Islam, and thus he is classified amongst Muslim Scholars. His family belong to Tabristan’s famous city Marv.

The fame acquired y Ali Ibn Rabban did not simply account for the reason tha t a physician of the stature of Zakariya al-Razi was amongst world-renowned treatise Firdous al-Hikmat. Spread over seven parts, Firdous al-Hikmat is the first ever medical encyclopedia which incorporates all the branches of medial science in its folds. This work has been published in the last century (twentieth century) only. Prior to that, it used to be found scattered in libraries the world over. Dr. Mohammad Zuabir Siddqui compared and edited the manuscripts. In his preface, he has provided extremely useful information regarding the book and the author and, wherever necessary, explanatory notes have been written to facilitate publication of this work on modern publishing standards.

Later on, this unique work was published with the co-operation of English and German institutions. Following are the details of its all seven parts:

Part one:
Kulliyat-e-Tibb. This part sheds light on contemporary ideology of medical science. In that era, these principles formed the basis of medical science parts.

Part two:
Elucidationof the organs of the human body, rules for keeping good health and comprehensive account of certain muscular diseases.

Part three:
Description of diet to be taken in conditions of health and disease.

Part four:
All diseases right from head to toe. This part is of profound significance in the whole book and comprises twelve papers.

  i) General causes relating to eruption of diseases
  ii) Diseases of the head and the brain
  iii) Diseases relating to the eye, nose, ear, mouth and the teeth
  iv) Muscular diseases (paralysis and spasm)
  v) Diseases of the regions of the chest, throat and the lungs
  vi) Diseases of the abdomen
  vii) Diseases of the liver
  viii) Diseases of gallbladder and spleen
  ix) Intestinal diseases
  x) Different kinds of fever
  xi) Miscellaneous diseases-Brief urine

This part is the largest in the book and is almost half the size of the whole book.

Part five:
Description of flavour, taste and colour.

Part six:
Drugs and poison

Part seven:
Deals with diverse topics. Discusses climate and astronomy. Also contains a brief mention of Indian medicine.

Though he wrote Firdous al-Hikmat in Arabic but he simultaneously translated it into Syriac. He has two more compilations to his credit namely Deen-wa Dawlat and Hifz al-Seha. The latter is available in the manuscript-form in the library of Oxford University. Besides Medical science, he was also a master of Philosophy, Mathematics and Astronomy. He breathed his last around 870 AD.

Thabit Ibn Qurra Ibn Marwan al-Sabi’al0Harrani was born in the year 836 AD at Harran (present Turkey). As the name indicates he was basically a member of the Sabian sect, but the great Muslim mathematician Muhammad Ibn Musa Ibn Shakir, impressed by his knowledge of languages, and realizing his potential for a scientific career, selected him to join the scientific group at Baghdad that was being patronized by the Abbasid Caliphs. There, he studied under the famous Banu Musa brothers. It was in this setting that Thabit contributed to several branches of science, notable mathematics, astronomy and mechanics, in addition to translating a large number of works from Greek to Arabic. Later, he was patronized by the Abbasid Caliph al-Mu’tadid. After a long career of scholarship, Thabit died at Baghdad in 901 AD.

Thabit’s major contribution lies in mathematics and astronomy. He was instrumental in extending the concept of traditional geometry to geometrical algebra and proposed several theories that led to the development of non-Euclidean geometry, spherical trigonometry, integral calculus and real numbers. He criticized a number of theorems of Euclid’s elements and proposed important improvements. He applied arithmetical terminology to geometrical quantities, and studied several aspects of conic sections, notable those of the parabola and the ellipse. A number of this computation aimed at determining the surfaces and volumes of different types of bodies and constitute, in fact, the processes of integral calculus, as developed later.

In astronomy, he was one of the early reformers of Ptolemaic views. He analyzed several problems related to the movements of sun and moon and wrote treatises on sundials.

In the fields of mechanics and physics, he may be recognized as the fonder of statics. He examined conditions of equilibrium of bodies, beams and levers.

In addition to translating a large number of books himself, he founded a Scholl of translation and supervised the translation of a further large number of books from Greek to Arabic.

Among Thabit’s writings, a large number have survived, while several are not extant. Most of the books are on mathematics, followed by astronomy and medicine. The books have been written in Arabic but some are in Syriac. In the Middle ages, some of his books ere translated into Latin by Gherard of Cremona. In recent centuries, a number of his books have been translated into European languages and published.

He carried further the work of the Banu Musa brothers and later his son and grandson continued in this tradition, together with the other members of the group. His original books as well his translations accomplished in the ninth century exerted a positive influence on the development of subsequent scientific research.

Abu Ja’afar Muhammad Ibn Muhammad Ibn al-Hassan Nisar al-Din al-Tusi was born inTus (Khurasan) in 1201 AD. He learnt sciences and philosophy from Kamal al-Din Ibn Yunus and others. He was one of those who were kidnapped by Hassan bin Sahab’s agents and sent to Almut, Hassan’s stronghold. In 1956 when Almust was conquered by the Mongols, Nasir al-Din joined Hulegu’s service. Hulegu Khan (Holako) was deeply impressed by his knowledge, including his astrological competency; appointed him as one of his ministers, and, later on, as administrator of Awqaf. He was instrumental in the establishment and progress of the observatory at Maragha. In his last year of life he went to Baghdad and died there.

Nasir al-Din was one of the greatest scientist, philosophers, mathematicians, astronomers, theologians and physicians of the time and was a prolific writer. He made significant contributions to a large number of subjects, and it is indeed difficult to present his work in a few words. He wrote one or several treatises on different sciences and subject including those on geometry, algebra, arithmetic, trigonometry, medicine, metaphysics, logic, ethics and theology. In addition, he wrote poetry in Persian.

In mathematics, his major contribution would seem to be in trigonometry, which was compiled by him as a new subject in its own right for the first time. In addition, he developed the subject of spherical trigonometry, including six fundamental formulae for the solution of spherical right-angled triangles.

As the chief scientist at the observatory established under his supervision at Maraghs, he made significant contributions to astronomy. The observatory was equipped with the best possible instruments, including those collected by the Mongol armies from Baghdad and other Islamic centers. The instruments included astrolabes, representation of constellations, epicycles, shapes of spheres, etc. he himself invented an instrument ‘turquet’ that contained two planes. After the devoted work o f12 years at the observatory and with the assistance of his group, he produced new astronomical tables called “al-Zij-Ilkhani” dedicated to Ilkhan (Hulegu Khan). Although Tusi had contemplated completing the tables in 30 years, the time required for the completion of planetary cycles, but he had to complete them in 12 years on orders from Hulegu Khan. The tables were largely based on original observations, but also drew upon the then existing knowledge on the subject. The ‘Zij Ilkhani’ became the most popular tables among astronomers and remained so till the fifteenth century. Nasir al-Din pointed out several serious shortcomings in Ptolemy’s astronomy and foreshadowed the alter dissatisfaction with the system that culminated in the Copernican reforms.

In philosophy, apart from his contribution in logic and metaphysics, his work on ethics entitled Akhlaq0I-Nsari became the most important book on the subject, and remained popular for centuries. His book Tajrid-al-Aqai’d was a major work on al-Kalam (Islamic scholastic philosophy) and enjoyed widespread popularity. Several commentaries were written on this book and even a number of super commentaries on the major commentaries, Sharh Qadim and Sharh Jadid.

The list of his known treatises is exhaustive. Brockelmann lists 56 and Sarton 64. about one-fourth of these concern mathematics, another fourth astronomy, another fourth philosophy and religion, and the remainder other subjects. The books, though originally written in Arabic and Persian, were translated into Latin and other European languages in the Middle Ages and several of these have been printed.

Tusi’s influence has been significant in the development of science, notably in mathematics and astronomy, his books were widely consulted for centuries and he has been held in high repute for his rich contributions.

Abu Al-Qasim Al-Zahrawi
(936-1013 AD)

Abul Qasim Khalaf Ibn al-Abbas al-Zahrawi (known in the west as Abulcasis) was born in 936 AD in Zahra in the neighborhood of Cardoba. He became one of the most renowned surgeons of the Muslim era and was physician to King al-Hakam-I of Spain. After a long medical career, rich with significant original contribution, he died in 1013 AD.

He is best known for his early and original breakthrough in surgery as well as for his famous Medical Encyclopedia called Al-Tasrif, which is composed of thirty volumes covering different aspects of medical science. The more important part of this series comprises three books on surgery, which describe in detail various as0ects of surgical treatment as based on the operations performed by him, including cauterization, removal of stone from the bladder, dissection of animals, midwifery, styptics, and surgery of eye, ear and throat. He perfected several delicate operations, including removal of the dead foetus and amputation.

Al-Tasrif was first translated by Gherard of Cremona into Latin in the Middle Ages. It was followed by several other editors in Europe. The book contains numerous diagrams and illustrations of surgical instruments, in use or developed by him, and comprised a part of the medical curriculum in European countries for many centuries. Contrary to the view that the Muslims fought shy of surgery, Al-Zahrawi’s Al-Tasrif provided a monumental collection for this branch of applied science.

Al-Azhrawi was the inventor of several surgical instruments, of which three are notable: (i) an instrument for internal examination of the ear, (ii) an instrument for internal inspection of the urethra, and (iii) and instrument for applying or removing foreign bodies from the throat. He specialized in curing disease by cauterization and applied the technique to as many as 50 different operations.

In his book Al-Tasrif, Al-Zahrawi was also discussed the preparation of various medicines, in addition to a comprehensive account of surgical treatment in specialized branches, whose modern counterparts are ENT, Ophthalmology, etc. in connection with the preparation of medicines, he has also described in detail the application of such techniques as sublimation and decantation. Al-Zahrawi was also an expert in dentistry, and his book contains sketches of various instruments used thereof, in addition to a description of various important dental operations. He discussed the problem of non-aligned or deformed teeth and how to rectify these defects. He developed the technique of preparing artificial teeth and of replacement of defective teeth by these. In medicine, he was the first to describe in detail the unusual disease, hemophilia.

There can be no doubt that Al-Zahrawi influenced the field of medicine and surgery very deeply and the principles laid down by him were recognized as authentic in medical science, especially surgery, and these continued to influence the medical world for five centuries. According to Campbell’s (History of Arab Medicine), his principles of medical science surpassed those of Galen in the European medical curriculum.